Synthesis Method of Napthoyl-thiourea Derivatives

Synthesis Method of Napthoyl-thiourea Derivatives CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY This chapter explains briefly on the synthesis method of napthoyl-thiourea derivatives, experimental characterization techniques (CHNS, FTIR, UV-Vis, UV-F, 1H and 13C NMR, Single Crystal X-Ray Crystallography Analysis, XRD, TGA, SEM, CV), electrodeposition of napthoyl-thiourea derivatives on ITO substrate, electrical conductivity measurement, IV curve characteristic, performance of organic diode and theoretical calculation via Gaussion 09 software package functions. 3.1  Reagents, Chemicals and Solvent All chemicals used in this study were commercially available and used as received without any purification step taken. Chemicals namely 1-napthanoyl chloride (C10H7COCl), ammonium thiocyanate (NH4SCN), 2-aminopyridine (C5H6N2), 2-amino-5-chloro-pyridine (C5H5N2Cl) and 3-amino-4-methylpyridine (C6H8N2) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. In addition, 2-amino-5-picoline (C6H8N2) and 2-amino-3-picoline (C6H8N2) were supplied from Merck. Solvents such as methanol (CH3OH), dichloromethane (CH2Cl2) and dimethylsulphoxide were supplied by Merck. Other solvents used in this study namely chloroform (CHCl3), ethyl acetate (CH3COOCH2CH3) and hexane (C6H14) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Acetonitrile (C2H3N) and diethyl ether (C4H10O) were supplied by R M chemicals. Whilst, acetone (CH3COCH3) was obtained from Fisher scientific. 3.2  Instrumentation and Characterization Techniques The infrared (IR) spectra of the synthesized compounds were recorded on a Fourier Transform-Infrared Spectrophotometer, Perkin Elmer Spectrum 100 in the range of 4000-400 cm-1 using potassium bromide (KBr) pellets. Electronic absorption spectra of the samples were recorded in the range of 200-400 nm using Shimadzu UV-Visible Spectrophotometer 1601 series in 1cm3 cuvette while the electronic emission spectra were recorded in the same range by using Shimadzu UV-Fluorescence Spectrophotometer. For Single X-Ray Crystallography, the diffraction data were collected at 296.15K. The structure was solved and refined by using Olex2 solution program and refinement package using Gauss-Newton Minimization. The 1H (400.11 MHz) and 13C (100.61 MHz) NMR spectra were recorded using Bruker Avance III 400 Spectrometer in CDCl3 as solvent and internal standard at room temperature in the range between ÃŽ ´H 0–15ppm and ÃŽ ´C 0–200ppm, respectively. Besides, CHNS-O Analyzer Flashea 1112 series was used to determine the experimental percentage of C, H, N and S elements of the synthesized compounds. Thermogravimetric analysis was performed using Perkin–Elmer TGA Analyzer from 0oC to 700oC at a heating rate of 10oC/min under nitrogen atmosphere. Analytical thin-layer chromatography (TLC) was carried out on precoated plate of TLC Silica Gel 60 F254 (Merck) and spots were visualized with ultraviolet light. The X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis was performed using Rigaku MiniFlexll from 3à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ±-80à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ±. The technique cyclic voltammetry was performed using Electrochemical Impedence Spectroscopy (EIS) PGSTAT302 with three-electrode cell consisting of a polished Pt rod working electrode, Pt disc counter electrode and AgCl reference electrode. The solutions were ~10-3 M in electroactive material and 0.1 M supporting electrolyte, sulphuric acid. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) PGSTAT302 was used to coat the synthesized compounds on the ITO thin film by using electrochemistry method. EIS was used to study the oxidation and reduction state of the element of the synthesized compounds. The surface morphology of the final synthesised compounds in the form of powder and thin films were scanned by JSM 6360 Joel Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with accelerated voltage 20 kV and magnification from 2000Ãâ€" until 10000Ãâ€" The electrical conductivity of the thin film was measured in the dark conditions by using Four-Point Probe and LI-200 Pyranometer Sensor with LI-1400 Data Logg er while Keithley 4200 SCS Semiconductor Characterization System and Probe Station were used for efficiency determination and OLED parameters were evaluated from IV curve. The performance as Diode was performed by using D2 Power Supply GP-430D. Last but not least, the experimental result were proven by using ab initio quantum mechanical evaluation at the theoretical level of DFT B3LYP/6-31G (d,p). The physical parameters such as dipole moment, energy band gap (HOMO and LUMO) and Mulliken Charges Bond length were calculated using Natural Bond Orbital Theory at the same theoretical level. 3.3  General Research Design In this study, the methodology is divided into four parts. Firstly, this research started with the synthesis napthoyl substructure of thiourea derivative. Secondly, all the synthesized compounds were characterized by using elemental analysis, typical spectroscopic and analytical techniques and electrochemical analysis. Next, the synthesized compounds were deposited on the ITO substrate as a thin film by using electrochemical deposition method. The conductivity and performance of the synthesized compounds as OLED were evaluated. Lastly, the experimental data were compared with the theoretical calculation by using Gaussion 09 software package. Figure 3.1 shows the schematic diagram of the experimental flow chart. 3.4  Synthetic Approach The synthetic approach to obtain the compounds of interest is shown in Scheme 3.2. Thiourea derivatives (15) were prepared by using 1-naphthoyl chloride as starting material. The mixture of 1-napthhoyl chloride, an equimolar amount of ammonium thiocyanate and designated amines (3-methylpyridin-2-amine, 6-methylpyridin-3-amine, 5-methylpyridin-2-amine, pyridine-2-amine and 5-chloropyridin-2-amine) in acetone was put at reflux with constant stirring for around ca. 10 hours. After completion, the reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature before it was then filtered. The off-white precipitate was removed and the filtrate was added to some ice blocks. The precipitate was crystallised from hot acetone to afford crystals of the title compounds (15). Scheme 3.2The general overview of the synthetic pathway applied in this study 3.5  Experimental Section 3.5.1  Synthesis of N-((3-methylpyridin-2-yl)carbamothioyl)-1-naphthamide (1) A solution of 1-napthanoyl chloride (1.5ml, 1mol) with the equimolar amount of ammonium thiocyanate (0.76g, 1mol) in ca. 50ml acetone in 100ml two-necked round-bottom flask. The reaction mixture was put at reflux with continuous stirring for ca. 5 hours. Then, a solution of 6-methylpyridin-3-amine (1.07g, 1mol) in ca. 50ml acetone was added to the reaction mixture and was put at reflux with continuous stirring for ca. 7 hours. The progress of the reaction was monitored with TLC (Hexane: DCM; 3:2). Once the reaction completed the reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and filtered into a beaker containing some ice cubes. The resulting light brown precipitate obtained, recrystallized from hot acetone to afford the title compound (1). 3.5.2  Synthesis of N-((5-metylpyridin-2-yl)carbamothioyl)-1-naphtamide (2) The title compound 2, (2.33g, 96%) obtained as light yellow crystalline solid was prepared from 1-napthanoyl chloride (1.5ml, 1mol), ammonium thiocyanate (0.76g, 1mol) and 3-methylpyridin-2-amine (1.07g, 1mol) in the manner as describe above. 3.5.3  Synthesis of N-((3-metylpyridin-2-yl)carbamothioyl)-1-naphtamide (3) The title compound 3, (2.66g, 98%) obtained as light yellow crystalline solid was prepared from 1-napthanoyl chloride (1.5ml, 1mol), ammonium thiocyanate (0.76g, 1mol) and 5-methylpyridin-2-amine (1.07, 1mol) in the manner as describe above. 3.5.4  Synthesis of N-(pyridin-2-ylcarbamothioyl)-1-naphthamide(4) In a manner similar to that described above 3, the title compound 4, (0.88g, 45%) obtained as light yellow crystalline solid was prepared from 1-napthanoyl chloride (1.5ml, 1mol), ammonium thiocyanate (0.76g, 1mol) and pyridin-2-amine (0.94g, 1mol). 3.5.5  Synthesis of N-((5-chloropyridin-2-yl)carbamothioyl)-1-naphthamide(5) The title compound 5, (1.97g, 87%) obtained as light yellow crystalline solid was prepared from 1-napthanoyl chloride (3ml, 1mol), ammonium thiocyanate (0.76g, 9.95mmol) and 5-chloropyridin-2-amine (1.28, 1mol) in the manner as describe above. 3.6Electrodeposition of Naptoyl-Thiourea Derivatives on ITO substrate The ITO substrates were used as working electrode was firstly cleaned with distilled water, detergent and acetone by using ultrasonic cleaner. All the synthesized compounds (15) were deposited on the ITO substrates by electrochemistry method by using Electrochemical Impendance Spectroscopy (EIS) PGSTAT302. By using the GPES method software, cyclic voltammetry (staircase) method was set to be in normal procedure. The depositions of the compounds were done in a mixture of compound dissolved in 45ml acetonitrile (10-3 M) and 5ml sulphuric acid (10-3 M) which act as supporting electrolyte .The cyclic of the process were set in Table 3.1 below. Figure 3.1 represent the arrangement layers of ITO/napthoyl-thiourea thin film. While, scheme 3.3 shows the overall methodology for organic light emitting diode (OLED) formation and characterization. Table 3.1 Procedure set for electrodeposition process No of scan 5 Start potential (V) 0 First Vertex Potential (V) 0 Second Vertex Potential (V) 3 Step Potential (V) 0.01 Scan Rate (Vs-1) 0.05 Figure 3.1The arrangement layers of ITO/napthoyl-thiourea thin film (1a5a) 3.7  Electrical Conductivity Measurement Four point probe was used to determine the conductivity of the thin film. The sheet resistivity of the films was measured with complete four probing system that consists of the Jandel Universal Probe combined with a Jandel RM3 Test Unit (Figure 3.2). In this study, the electrical conductivity of thin film was measured in dark condition to see its tendency to be applied as organic diode. Four probes were aligned and lowered onto the sample. The two outer probes supplied a voltage difference that drives a current through the film while the two inner probes pick up a voltage difference. Figure 3.2Jandel Universal Probe and RM3 Test Unit The sheet resistances (resistivity) for the thin films are shown in Equation 3.1 below. The unit of sheet resistance is ohms per square (à ¯Ã‚ -/sq): Rs = 4.532 x V / I (Equation3.1) Where: Rs = sheet resistance 4.532 = correction factor V = voltage measured I = current applied The electrical conductivity can be determined which it is the reciprocal (inverse) of the electrical resistivity, à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ³ as shown in Equation 3.2. The unit of electrical conductivity is ohm-1 m-1 (à ¯Ã‚ --1 m-1) = Siemens m-1 (Sm-1). à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ³ = 1 / Rs(Equation 3.2) Where, à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ³ = electrical conductivity Rs = sheet resistivity 3.8  IV Curve Characteristic The IV curves of the 1a5a were measured by using Keithley 4200 SCS Semiconductor Characterization System and Probe Station (Figure 3.3). In this study, ITO substrate act as hole collecting layer (anode) while napthoyl-thiourea derivatives act as hole and electron carriers. The coated ITO substrates were mask with low work function metal which is aluminuim which act as cathode. Figure 3.3Semiconductor Characterization System and Probe Station The I-V curve shows the relationship between the currents and voltages gradient associated with the different current terminal (anode and cathode) of the diode. The obtained curve displays the forward current, reverse current, knee voltage and breakdown voltage of the diode. 3.9  Performance as Diode The performances of 1a5a as organic diode were tested by using D2 Power Supply GP-430D (Figure 3.4) under dark condition with difference voltagesin the range 15V to 30V. Figure 3.4D2 Power Supply GP-430D

Artificial Neural Network Based Rotor Reactance Control Essay

Abstract: Problem statement: The Rotor reactance control by inclusion of external capacitance in the rotor circuit has been in recent research for improving the performances of Wound Rotor Induction Motor (WRIM). The rotor capacitive reactance is adjusted such that for any desired load torque the efficiency of the WRIM is maximized. The rotor external capacitance can be controlled using dynamic capacitor in which the duty ratio is varied for emulating the capacitance value. This study presents a novel technique for tracking maximum efficiency point in the entire operating range of WRIM using Artificial Neural Network (ANN). The data for ANN training were obtained on a three phase WRIM with dynamic capacitor control and rotor short circuit at different speed and load torque values. Approach: A novel nueral network model based on back-propagation algorithm has been developed and trained for determining the maximum efficiency of the motor with no prior knowledge of the machine parameter s. The input variables to the ANN are stator current (Is), Speed (N) and Torque(Tm) and the output variable is duty ratio (D). Results: The target is set with a goal of 0.00001. The accuracy of the ANN model is measured using Mean Square Error (MSE) and R2 parameters. The result of R2 value of the proposed ANN model is 0.99980. Conclusion: The optimal duty ratio and corresponding optimal rotor capacitance for improving the performances of the motor are predicted for low, medium and full loads by using proposed ANN model. Key words: Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Wound Rotor Induction Motor (WRIM), Torque(Tm), Digital Signal Processor (DSP), rotor reactance control, corresponding optimal rotor INTRODUCTION It is known from the literatu... ...11. Neural network based new energy conservation scheme for three phase induction motor operating under varying load torques. IEEE Int. Conf. PACC’11, pp: 1-6. R. A. Jayabarathi and N. Devarajan, 2007. ANN Based DSPIC Controller for Reactive Power Compensation. American Journal of Applied Sciences, 4: 508-515. DOI: 10.3844/ajassp.2007.508.515. T. Benslimane, B. Chetate and R. Beguenane, 2006. Choice Of Input Data Type Of Artificial Neural Network To Detect Faults In Alternative Current Systems. American Journal of Applied Sciences, 3: 1979-1983. DOI: 10.3844/ajassp.2006.1979.1983. M. M. Krishan, L. Barazane and A. Khwaldeh, 2010. Using an Adaptative Fuzzy-Logic System to Optimize the Performances and the Reduction of Chattering Phenomenon in the Control of Induction Motor. American Journal of Applied Sciences, 7: 110-119. DOI: 10.3844/ajassp.2010.110.119.

An Insight into Addressing Behavioural Problems

Typically, in the field of behavioral studies, the objective of intervention has been to diminish a challenging behavior (i. e. aggression, property destruction, self-injury). Nonetheless, as research and practice in behavior analysis have matured to address the point of behavioural functions, there has been an analogous shift in the selection of target behaviors and interventions (Horner and Carr, 1997).Within the last few years, investigators and practitioners applying competent supportive technologies within characteristic school and community settings have been established to identify and to teach socially covetous alternative behaviors such as communication, social skills, and choice-making (Koegel, Koegel, Harrower, and Carter, 1999). Accordingly, practitioners have increasingly identified significant outcomes of behavioural interventions to be not only declines in problem behavior but also rise in one or more substitute behaviors.Therefore the measurement of multiple outcomes for a person with problem behaviors has started to reflect a more complex evaluation model (Carr, Levin, et al, 1999). In effect, I think that the role of the nurse is to help in drafting more proactive approaches in resolving problem behaviour. One possibility for the nurse is to consider the significance of a team based approach to this issue. The team must also be multidisciplinary, one which probably call for the involvement of a behavior specialist with expertise in the practical approach to behavior as a member of the team employed in addressing behavioral issues.Intervention plans based on the practical behavior evaluation of target behaviors have a higher probability of positively influencing the individual’s behavior over the long term (Lalli, Browder, Mace, and Brown, 1993). The involvement of a cooperative team early in the procedure of assessing behavior and designing interventions will surely aid in enhanced intervention fidelity and promoted positive changes in patients’ behaviour (Hieneman and Dunlap, 1999).The nurse should also be involved across the phases of evaluation, intervention establishment, and succeeding program monitoring. Nurses may also be involved in formulating interventions that could be realistically executed (Lentz et al, 1996). I also think that the nurse must take on proactive approaches and techniques seek to decrease the possibility that undesirable behavior will be derived by analysing environmental contexts and the patients’ behavioural repertoires (O’Brien and Repp, 1990).The proactive factors of interventions must stress reliable communication, access to typical environments, and examination of demands. Generalisation of communication skills and alternative behaviors may be fortified during interactions with typical peers during participation in regular activities. Interactions and participation not only allow for opportunities to generalise prosocial behaviors but likewise serve as a encour aging incentive. In all these activities, nurses like myself may take on a critical role.We must not be limited to providing physical care, but also take in careful consideration the other factors that may influence problematic behaviour, and take an active stance in trying to help the individual develop. In taking on a holistic stance, I can make a real difference. References Carr, E. G. , Levin, L. , McConnachie, G. , Carlson, J. I. , Kemp, D. C. , Smith, C. G. , et al. (1999). Comprehensive multisituational intervention for problem behavior in the community: Long-term maintenance and social validation.Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1, 5-25. Hieneman, M. , & Dunlap, G. (1999). Issues and challenges in implementing community-based behavioral support for two boys with severe behavioral difficulties. In J. Scotti & L. Meyer (Eds. ), Behavioral intervention: Principles, models, and practices (pp. 363-384). Baltimore: Brookes Horner, R. H. , & Carr, E. G. (1997). Behavior support for students with severe disabilities: Functional assessment and comprehensive intervention. The Journal of Special Education, 31, 84-104.

Rand Corporation

In spite of what we see on television regarding crime scenes and detective work, detectives are more complex than what they are showing us. According to the Bureau of Labor, a police officers Job is to protect the citizens and our land(Bureau of Labor 2014). While the Job of a detective is to investigate crimes, gather facts and collect evidence, for a potential crime (Bureau of Labor 2014), there are severe types of detectives within a police department. There are homicide detectives, who work specifically on finding the person who committed the homicide.Cyber Crime detectives, and their focus is strictly on protecting the citizens from internet abuse kind computer crimes. Computer crimes would consist of fraud and identity thief. Cyber detectives also protect our youth from predators on the internet. There is also have a gang and narcotics unit, in which some of the detectives will go undercover, just to get the information they need to start an investigation. (Dempsey & Frost 2011 ). Last but not least, there is a detective unit for cold cases.These cases are asses that could not be solved, boot other detectives from different departments(Retested 2014). I believe that they should leave the policing to the police and the Investigative work to the detectives. Keeping their work separate is beneficial to the citizens and the police department. This way they can be more attentive and peduncle to the citizens in specific areas. Police are being pulled Into many different directions on a dally basis.. They are called for emergency and non-emergency situations everyday.The police wouldn't be as effective doing their day to day, If they add detective work to their plate. I believe that the detective annuls that I mentioned above are needed and should be kept separately. While I do agree that the police should do the preliminary work, but I do not agree with them doing the Investigative work as well. I don't believe the police departments wouldn't be as successful If they didn't have them separate. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2014). Police and Detective Occupational Outlook. Shinto DC: SSP suite. Dempsey, J. , & Frost, L. (2011). Police (e). Clifton Park, NY: Delmarva Retested, A. (2014).

Biography of John Napier, Scottish Mathematician

Biography of John Napier, Scottish Mathematician John Napier (1550-April 4, 1617) was a Scottish mathematician and theological writer who developed the concept of  logarithms and the decimal point as a mathematical calculation method. He also had an influence in the world of physics and astronomy. Fast Facts: John Napier Known For: Developing and introducing the concept of logarithms, Napiers Bones and the decimal point.Born: 1550 at Merchiston Castle, near  Edinburgh, ScotlandDied: April 4, 1617, at Merchiston CastleSpouse(s): Elizabeth Stirling (m. 1572-1579), Agnes ChisholmChildren: 12 (2 with Stirling, 10 with Chisholm)Notable Quote: Seeing there is nothing that is so troublesome to mathematical practice.... than the multiplications, divisions, square and cubical extractions of great numbers, which besides the tedious expense of time are... subject to many slippery errors, I began, therefore, to consider [how] I might remove those hindrances. Early Life Napier was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, into the Scottish nobility. Since his father was Sir Archibald Napier of Merchiston Castle, and his mother, Janet Bothwell, was the daughter of a member of Parliament, John Napier became the laird (property owner) of Merchiston. Napiers father was only 16 when his son, John, was born. As was the practice for members of the nobility, Napier did not enter school until he was 13. He did not stay in school very long, however. It is believed that he dropped out and traveled in  Europe to continue his studies. Little is known about these years, where or when he may have studied. In 1571, Napier turned 21 and returned to Scotland. The following year he married Elizabeth Stirling, daughter of Scottish mathematician James Stirling (1692-1770), and bat a castle at Gartnes in 1574. The couple had two children before Elizabeth died in 1579. Napier later married Agnes Chisholm, with whom he had ten children. On the death of his father in 1608, Napier and his family moved into Merchiston Castle, where he lived the rest of his life. Napiers father had been deeply interested and involved in religious matters, and Napier himself was no different. Because of his inherited wealth, he needed no professional position. He kept himself very busy by being involved with the political and religious controversies of his time. For the most part, religion and politics in Scotland at this time pitted Catholics against Protestants. Napier was anti-Catholic, as evidenced by his 1593 book against Catholicism and the papacy (office of the pope) entitled A Plaine Discovery of the Whole Revelation of St. John. This attack was so popular that it was translated into several languages and saw many editions. Napier always felt that if he attained any fame at all in his life, it would be because of that book. Becoming an Inventor As a person of high energy and curiosity, Napier paid much attention to his landholdings and tried to improve the workings of his estate. Around the Edinburgh area, he became widely known as Marvellous Merchiston for the many ingenious mechanisms he built to improve his crops and cattle. He experimented with fertilizers to enrich his land, invented an apparatus to remove water from flooded coal pits, and bat devices to better survey and measure land. He also wrote about plans to bad elaborate devices that would deflect any Spanish invasion of the British Isles. In addition, he described military devices that were similar to todays submarine, machine gun, and army tank. He never attempted to build any of the military instruments, however. Napier had a great interest in astronomy. which led to his contribution to mathematics. John was not just a stargazer; he was involved in research that required lengthy and time-consuming calculations of very large numbers. Once the idea came to him that there might be a better and simpler way to perform large number calculations, Napier focused on the issue and spent twenty years perfecting his idea. The result of this work is what we now call  logarithms. The Father of Logarithms and the Decimal Point Napier realized that all numbers can be expressed in what is now called exponential form, meaning 8 can be written as 23, 16 as 24  and so on. What makes logarithms so useful is the fact that the operations of multiplication and division are reduced to simple addition and subtraction. When very large numbers are expressed as a logarithm, multiplication becomes the addition of  exponents. Example: 102  times 105  can be calculated as 10  25  or 107. This is easier than 100 times 100,000. Napier first made this discovery known in 1614 in his book called A Description of the Wonderful Canon of Logarithms. The author briefly described and explained his inventions, but more importantly, he included his first set of logarithmic tables. These tables were a stroke of genius and a big hit with astronomers and scientists. It is said that English mathematician Henry Briggs was so influenced by the tables that he traveled to Scotland just to meet the inventor. This lead to a cooperative improvement including the development of  Base 10. Napier was also responsible for advancing the notion of the decimal fraction by introducing the use of the decimal point. His suggestion that a simple point could be used to separate the whole number and fractional parts of a number soon became accepted practice throughout Great Britain. Edited by Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.

Eastern Europe and Russia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Eastern Europe and Russia - Essay Example As reviewed by Butler (2007), the highlight of European civilization had been mostly focused on one group, the Byzantine Empire, which had thrived despite the incursions on fifth century C.E. The race had adopted the Greek culture and its philosophy. Nonetheless, like other great civilizations, the empire, too, had experienced its ultimate end in 1453 (â€Å"The Byzantine Empire,† n.d.). Despite its massive fall in 40th century, their existence still holds substantial contributions to Eastern Europe and Russia up to now. It paved way to the emergence of eastern Cyrillic alphabet, as well as the Orthodox Christianity in Russia (Peterson, 1995). As further explained by Butler (2007), â€Å"Eastern Europe, especially Russia, was heavily influenced by Byzantine architecture.† Such masterpiece can be witness in the â€Å"onion dome† of most Russian Churches. In similar area, the art of this empire had influenced the styles in Europe in terms of â€Å"designs that dep ict God, icons, religious images†¦mosaic, pictures and colored bits of stained scenes or tile cemented in place—brought scenes from the Bible to life.† By claiming part of the Greek’s heritage, the Byzantine Empire had contributed in Literature, as well—preserving important scholarly writings. Its thoughtful conservation had aided much in the development of the European culture—the Renaissance (â€Å"The Byzantine Empire,† n.d.). The eastern part of the continent had experienced fateful changes, from various barbaric invasions to prolonged Communist stand. Most Eastern European countries took a sharp turn, as communism was terminated in 1989-1991 (Fukuyama, Lewis, Orenstein, Kapstein, & Converse, 2008). The struggle in transition phase had been difficult for most East European countries. Modifications in economy had a negative effect on the people in Eastern Europe. â€Å"The number of jobs had declined†¦in some sectors, the number of workers in Czech had been cut in half†

Development of Catholic Church Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Development of Catholic Church - Research Paper Example This paper will discuss the development of the Catholic Church, the church fathers, their opponents, and the theological disputes the church fathers faced. The spreading of Christian religion was more successful in urban areas among people of low social class, aristocratic women and slaves. The first Catholic Church was not well organized, thus; they came up with a structured hierarchy where the Bishop had authority over clergy in his city. By the third century, many things had changed, and the Bishop of Rome solved problems that other Bishops could not solve thus acted as a court of appeal. The doctrine of the Catholic Church was refined by the church fathers. Many years later catholic teachings came to be defined by proto-orthodox teachings. Christians faced persecution due to their refusal to give up their God and worship the gods of the other religions. The non Christians and the authorities felt that Christians were threatening their peace and the prosperity of the Roman Empire, by annoying the gods. Christians faced accusation of incest and cannibalism due to their secrecy in their religious practice. Any unusual occurrence in the empire was blamed on the Christians claiming that the gods were angry, and this led to the persecution of more Christians in the Roman Empire. All residents, except the Jews, had to give sacrifices to the gods or risk being persecuted. However, all these events took a turn when Constantine became emperor of the Western Roman Empire. He declared that his victory was attributed to Christianity. He came up with a law that mandated the acceptance of all religions in the Empire. After the Western Roman Empire failure, there were competitions between the Catholic Church and Arianism to convert the Barbarian tribes. In the late 15th century explorers and the European missionaries spread Catholicism in America, Asia and Africa. The Catholic Church had Church fathers. Church fathers were early eminent Christian teachers, bishops and infl uential theologians. The church fathers faced a number of theological disputes. For, example, Jesus Christ in the Eucharist was a sign of contradiction to the early church fathers. Some people did not believe that the Eucharist was a representation of the body of Christ or the symbolic memorial of Christ’s death. The cross was also a point of dispute. It is believed that Jesus Christ died for man’s sin, yet the Catholics believe that we should obey God, love others and go through suffering and pain. This is a contradiction since Jesus suffered on the cross for man’s sins. Human embryo is also another contradiction. This was seen as a sign of dispute the church fathers engaged in because it is believed that, the embryo is already a human being and that human beings were created in the God’s likeness (Edward 23). Augustine of Hippo was a bishop of Regius. He believed that Christ’s grace is indispensable to the freedom of human Augustine was converted to Christianity after hearing the story of Placianus. This story inspired him and led to his conversion to Christianity. He gave up his social life and dedicated his life to serving God and practiced priesthood, including celibacy. According to him, his conversion was prompted by a voice he heard that was child like telling him, â€Å"tolle, lege† (â€Å"take up and read†). Augustine considered the fact that people believed the soul originated from God as